14

M O D U L E 

Critical Thinking and Problem Solving

Summary Key Concepts Case Studies: Reflect and Evaluate

Critical Thinking

n What Is Critical Thinking?

n Application: Fostering Critical Thinking
 

Thinking Skills and Dispositions

n What Are Higher-order Thinking Skills?

n What Are Thinking Dispositions?

Outline Learning Goals

1. Explain the difference between a higher-order thinking skill and a thinking disposition, and discuss why both skills and dispositions are important.

 

2. Explain what critical thinking means.

3. Identify five instructional strategies that can be used to foster critical thinking.
 

Problem Solving

n What Is Problem Solving?

n Obstacles to Successful Problem Solving

n Application: Teaching Problem-solving Strategies
 

4. Define problem solving and explain the difference between a well-defined problem and an ill-defined problem.

5. Discuss the role of algorithms, heuristics, the IDEAL approach, and problem-based learning in teaching problem solving.

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THINKING SKILLS AND DISPOSITIONS

Socrates challenged the loose thinking of the youth of his day by asking questions such as “What is the evidence?” and “If this is true, does it not follow that other things must also be true?”

He promoted an approach that disciplined his students’ thinking and guarded against the human tendency to accept fallacious arguments and draw unwarranted conclusions (Resnick, 1987). Today, teachers in every grade level and every discipline often ask themselves the same question: “How can I get my students to think?” Educational and professional success requires the development of thinking skills and a consistent internal motivation to use those skills in appropriate situations (Facione, Facione, & Giancarlo, 2000).
 

What Are Higher-order Thinking Skills?

Higher-order thinking involves complex cognitive processes that transform and apply our knowledge, skills, and ideas. Norman R. F. Maier (1933, 1937) used the term reasoning or productive behavior to describe higher-order thinking and described lower-order thinking as learned behavior or reproductive thinking. He demonstrated experimentally that the two are qualitatively different types of behavior patterns. Learning the multiplication tables through repeated practice is an example of lower-order thinking—reproducing a behavior previously observed or practiced.

Higher-order thinking moves beyond reproducing previous learning and draws on analysis, synthesis, and evaluation skills (Lewis & Smith, 1993). For example, a student may know how to compute the area of a rectangle but may be faced instead with a problem that asks for the area of a parallelogram. If the student is able to see how to convert the parallelogram to a rectangle of the same size and proportion, he has produced new knowledge from the integration of previous learning experiences. Simple repetition of a previous behavior is insufficient. The student has to transform and apply previous learning in a new way.

The idea that thinking can be divided into higher and lower levels was elaborated on by Benjamin Bloom and colleagues in their Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, usually called Bloom’s taxonomy (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001; Bloom, Englehart, Frost, Hill, & Krathwohl, 1956). Table 14.1 provides additional distinctions between lower-order and higher-order thinking. Higher-order thinking skills frequently are interwoven with basic skills during the teaching and learning process (Resnick, 1987; Shaw, 1983). For example, in order for children to understand what they read, they have to be able to make inferences and to use knowledge or information that goes beyond the written text; thus, teaching reading involves interweaving both basic reading skills and higher-order thinking processes.

Many have argued that in order to compete in the twenty-first century, American students need to be taught a curriculum that balances core knowledge—such as math, science, and reading—with instruction in how to think—such as critical thinking, problem solving, and making connections between ideas (Wallis & Steptoe, 2006). Enhancing the quality of thinking of all children is important, but it may have particular significance for those minority students who historically have not performed as well as their more economically advantaged peers (Armour-Thomas, Bruno, & Allen, 2006). A curriculum that emphasizes higher-order thinking skills has been found to substantially increase the math and reading comprehension scores of economically disadvantaged students (Pogrow, 2005).

Thinking Skills. Effective teachers encourage their students to be critical thinkers and problem solvers.

 

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Bloom’s taxonomy:

See page 360.


 

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TA B L E  1 4 .1 A Comparison of Lower-order and Higher-order Thinking Lower-order Thinking Higher-order Thinking

Reproductive behavior Productive behavior Repeating past experiences Integrating past experiences Routine or mechanical application of previously acquired information

Interpreting, analyzing, or otherwise manipulating information
Recalling information Manipulating information Knowledge, comprehension, and application Analysis, synthesis, and evaluation
 

Sources: Bartlett, 1958; Bloom et al., 1956; Maier, 1933; Marzano, 1993; Newman, 1990.

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244 cluster four cognitive processes
 

Although learning theorists see the development of higher-order thinking as an important goal for all students, teachers often believe that stimulating higher-order thinking is appropriate only for high-achieving students (Torff, 2005). According to this view, low-achieving students are, by and large, unable to deal with tasks that require higher-order thinking skills and thus should be spared the frustration generated by engaging in such tasks. This rationale for reserving higher-level thinking for high achievers is not supported in the research literature, however. Rather, research strongly suggests that teachers should encourage students of all academic levels to engage in tasks that involve higher-order thinking skills (Miri, David, & Uri, 2007; Zohar & Dori, 2003).
 

What Are Thinking Dispositions?

What sets good thinkers apart is not simply superior cognitive ability or particular skills; rather, it is their “tendencies to explore, to inquire, to seek clarity, to take intellectual risks, to think critically and imaginatively” (Tishman, Jay, & Perkins, 1992, p. 2). These tendencies can be called thinking dispositions. Teaching for thinking involves nurturing dispositions such as (Facione et al., 2000; Tishman, Jay, & Perkins, 1992):
 

n truth-seeking, a desire to understand clearly, to seek connections and explanations;

n open-mindedness, the tendency to explore alternative views, to generate multiple options;

n analytical thinking, the urge for precision, organization, thoroughness, and accuracy;

n systematic planning, the drive to set goals, to make and execute plans, and to envision outcomes;

n intellectual curiosity, the tendency to wonder, probe, and find problems; a zest for inquiry;

n confi dence in the use of reasons and evidence, or the tendency to question the given, to demand justification, and to weigh and assess reasons and;

n metacognition, the tendency to be aware of and monitor the flow of one’s own thinking and the ability to exercise mature judgment.

Empirical  research  has  shown  that thinking  skills  and  thinking  dispositions are two distinct entities (Ennis, 1996; Perkins, Jay, & Tishman, 1993;
Taube, 1997). A thinking skill is a cognitive strategy, whereas a thinking disposition is a personal attribute (Dewey, 1933).  There  is  a  difference  between teaching a thinking skill and motivating students to cultivate a curious, inquisitive nature in which thinking skills are used consistently (Fisher & Scriven, 1997). Skills and dispositions are mutually reinforcing and thus should be explicitly taught and modeled together (King  &  Kitchener,  1995).  Teachers have a responsibility not only to promote thinking skills, but also to motivate  students  to  make  higher-order thinking a habit.

What intellectual dispositions have become consistent features of the way you think? In what areas do you have thinking skills but lack the motivation to use them?
 

CRITICAL THINKING

The ideal critical thinker is habitually inquisitive,  well-informed,  trustful  of
 

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Metacognition: See page 214.

Significance of Thinking Skills. The development of higher-order thinking skills is associated with substantial increases in the math and reading comprehension scores of minority students who are economically disadvantaged.

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Motivation:

See page 256.


 

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rea son, open-minded, flexible, fair-minded in evaluation, honest in facing personal biases, prudent in making judgments, willing to reconsider, clear about issues, orderly in complex matters, diligent in seeking relevant information, reasonable in the selection of criteria, focused in inquiry, and persistent in seeking results which are as precise as the subject and circumstances of inquiry permit. (APA, 1990, p. 3)
 

What Is Critical Thinking?

Critical thinking is the process of evaluating the accuracy and worth of information and lines of reasoning. A disposition toward critical thinking could be characterized as the consistent internal motivation to use critical thinking skills to decide what to believe and do (Facione et al., 2000). A critical thinker not only is capable of reflecting, exploring, and analyzing, but chooses to think in advanced, sophisticated ways (Esterlee & Clurman, 1993). We use aspects of critical thinking all the time in tasks such as comparing food labels to see which foods are most nutritious, deciding which candidate to vote for in an election, and evaluating advertising claims. In any instance of critical thinking or reasoning, at least one question is at issue. For example, in an elementary classroom, students might be given a set of objects and asked to form and test a hypothesis about whether each object will sink or float. During the critical thinking process, students deconstruct a problem, issue, or argument using guidelines such as those listed here (Marzano et al., 1988; Paul & Elder, 2006).
 

n Frame of reference or points of view involved: Clearly identify the point of view from which a problem is expressed.
 

n Assumptions made: Identify what is assumed or taken for granted in thinking about the issue.

n Central concepts and ideas involved: Identify the most important ideas that are relevant to the issue.

n Principles or theories used: Identify the principles or theories used to support an argument. Clarify them, question them, consider alternatives, and apply theories precisely and appropriately.
 

n Evidence, data, or reasons given: Identify lines of reasoning and the evidence on which the reasoning is based. Use logic in trying to determine whether a statement or an argument has a solid basis in fact. Identify contradictions.
 

n Interpretations or claims made: Examine whether the interpretations or claims made are valid and grounded in evidence.
 

n Inferences made: Rationally argue in favor of the inferences being made. Formulate and consider possible objections to inferences.
 

n Potential implications and consequences: Figure out the implications and consequences of a line of reasoning or course of action.

Let’s think about these skills within the context of reading a piece of literature. As a critical thinker, the reader might consider the points of view of different characters, identify central themes in the book, look for evidence to support assertions being made, and consider alternative endings, noting the possible implications these would have for the various characters.

Critical thinking abilities emerge gradually (King & Kitchener, 2002; Pillow, 2002). The development of critical thinking proceeds in stages that reflect an increasing ability to analyze one’s own thinking with a view toward improving it (Paul & Elder, 2006). In the initial stage, individuals may be completely unaware of any significant problems in their thinking. Once they are faced with problems in their thinking (through self-discovery or through direct challenge of their ideas and beliefs by someone else), they may try to improve. At the next stage, they recognize the need for regular practice and take advantage of ways to practice good thinking habits. In the final stage, critical thinking habits become second nature (automatic) as the individual becomes a “master thinker” (Paul & Elder, 2006). Qualitative dimensions that reflect an individual’s skill in critical thinking inclu...